Chapter Two Class Notes

Class Notes
Principles of Sociology
Professor Henry Schissler
Chapter Two


Culture and Socialization

Culture is the totality of learned, socially transmitted customs, knowledge, material objects, and behavior.

Culture is the complex system of meaning and behavior that defines the way of life for a given group or society.

• Material Culture consists of the objects created in a given society, which are its buildings, art, tools, toys, print and broadcast media, and other tangible objects. These objects are significant because of the meaning they are given.

• Nonmaterial Culture (also called symbolic culture) includes the norms, laws, customs, ideas, and beliefs of a group of people. It has a strong presence in social behavior.

A society is the largest form of human group, consisting of people who share common heritage and culture.

Culture...

1. Culture penetrates deep into our thinking, becoming a taken-for-granted lens through which we see the world and obtain our sense of reality

2. Culture provides implicit instructions that tell us what we ought to do in various situations; it provides a fundamental basis for our decision making


3. Culture provides a “moral imperative”; that is, the culture that we internalize becomes the “right” way of doing things


4. All people have culture; there are no exceptions; a society cannot exist without developing shared, learned ways of dealing with the demands of life (Henslin, 36)





Characteristics of Culture

(1) Culture is shared. It is collectively experienced and agreed upon (by the majority).

Example: each group called Latino has distinct cultural systems. There are some similarities and some differences. But they all share a common culture that is shaped by their common experiences as minorities in the United States.


(2) Culture is learned. Beliefs and practices are usually so well learned that they seem perfectly natural.

Sometimes, culture is taught through direct instruction. Most is learned indirectly through observation and imitation.

The process of learning culture is called socialization.


(3) Culture is taken for granted.

Because culture is learned, members of a given society seldom question the culture they belong to unless they become outsiders or establish some critical distance from the usual cultural expectations.

These and other circumstances might cause them to question or even challenge the status quo of culture.


(4) Culture is symbolic.

The significance of culture lies in the meaning people give to symbols for things or behavior.

Status Symbols are promoted in our culture as a core part of one’s self-identity.

Symbols can mean different things in different contexts. Cultural meaning is, therefore, created in specific social contexts.


(5) Culture varies across time and place.

Physical and social environments vary from one society to another, and because people are creative in adapting culture to the challenges they face, culture is not fixed from one place to another. – Margaret Anderson & Howard Taylor Howard, Sociology: The Essentials. Chapter 2, pp. 33-36

Cultural Relativism is the idea that something can be understood and judged only in relationship to the cultural context in which it appears. Without knowing the cultural context, it is impossible to understand why people behave the way that they do.


Additional Key Concepts

All societies have developed certain common practices and beliefs, known as Cultural Universals. Most are adaptations for human survival – food, shelter, and clothing. Others include athletic sports, cooking, funeral ceremonies, medicine, and sexual restrictions.

Globalization – More and more cultural expressions and practices are crossing national borders and having an effect on the traditions & customs of the societies exposed to them.

• Diffusion refers to the process by which a cultural item, custom, or idea spreads from group to group or society to society. It can also mix with the new culture to take on a distinct identity. (example: Asia de Cuba restaurants)

• Technology has increased the speed of cultural diffusion as well as the rapid introduction of values, norms and products from various societies & cultures.


The McDonaldization of Society, written by Sociologist George Ritzer, describes how the principles of fast-food restaurants developed in the USA have come to dominate more & more sectors of societies throughout the world (globalization). Examples are walk-in appointments, similar marketing techniques, melding of cultures into a “package” presentation.


McDonaldization promotes instant gratification and impulsivity (later in the semester we will discuss the Sociology of Impulsivity).

From the text:
“McDonald’s is the basis of one of the most influential developments in contemporary society. Its reverberations extend far beyond its point of origin in the United States and in the fast-food business. It has influenced a wide range of undertakings, indeed the way of life, of a significant portion of the world. And that impact is likely to expand at an accelerating rate.”

“McDonald’s serves here as the major example, the paradigm, of a wide-ranging process I call McDonaldization. McDonaldization affects not only the restaurant business but also education, work, health care, travel, leisure, dieting, politics, the family, and virtually every other aspect of society. McDonaldization has shown every sign of being an inexorable (unstoppable, unchangeable) process, sweeping through seemingly impervious (inflexible) institutions and regions of the world.” – Richard Schaefer, Soiology: A Brief Introduction. Chapter 6, p 116


Innovation is the process of introducing a new idea or object to a culture.

But some cultures, subcultures and societies are rejecting influence from outside cultures, or are protecting themselves from the invasion of too much culture from other countries. Examples: the strong stance by religious fundamentalists to reject new ideas and new norms; and, the Canadian government requiring 35% of a station’s daytime radio programming consist of Canadian songs or artists.

• Subculture – the values and related behaviors of a group that distinguish its members from the larger culture; a world within a world

• Counterculture – a group whose values, beliefs, and related behaviors place its members in opposition to the broader culture

• Pluralistic Society – a society made up of many different groups
(Henslin, 47)


Elements of Culture

1. Language is the foundation of every culture. It is an abstract system of word meanings & symbols for all aspects of culture. It includes speech, written characters, numerals, symbols, and gestures and expressions of nonverbal communication.


2. Norms are established standards of behavior maintained by a society. Norms come from a society’s values (overarching macro-level beliefs in what is right and wrong, good or bad, appropriate and inappropriate).

• Formal Norms have been written down and specify strict punishment for violators. Most societies formalize norms as laws (governmental social controls). Other types of formal norms would be requirements for a college degree or the rules of a card game.

• Informal Norms are generally understood but they are not precisely recorded. There are no specific punishments for violation of informal norms. A violator may be viewed as a non-conformist. Informal norms promote conformity to the status quo of a culture in a covert manner.




There are three types of norms:

• Folkways – norms governing everyday behavior; they are not formalized & their violation raises little concern. (example: walking up the down escalator)

Folkways are also defined as norms that are passed down from generation to generation. (example: you should marry someone of the same ethnicity & religion). Norm violation can raise concern, but does not lead to significant penalty.

Folkways are Informal Norms.

• Mores – norms deemed highly necessary to welfare of society, often because they embody the most cherished principles of a people. Society demands obedience to mores; violation leads to severe penalties. (Example: drunk/drugged driving, murder, child abuse.

Mores are institutionalized into Formal Norms.

• Taboos are mores so strong that their violation is considered to be extremely offensive, unthinkable.


3. Sanctions are penalties and rewards for conduct concerning a social norm.

Conformity to norms can lead to such positive sanctions as a pay raise or a silver medal (formal norms because they are codified), a smile or a complement (informal norms).

Examples of negative sanctions are frowns or humiliation (informal norms), or a demotion at work or a jail sentence (formal norms).

Laws are formal, standardized norms enacted by legislatures and enforced by formal sanctions. Civil law deals with disputes among people or groups. Criminal law deals with public safety and well-being.


4. Values are collective conceptions of what is considered good, desirable, and proper – or bad undesirable, and improper – in a culture.

The entire fabric of norms and sanctions reflects that culture’s values and priorities. They may be specific (owning a home) or general (love), and they are not uniformly shared by all members of a culture.

Values are interpreted. Therefore, the same value may mean different things to different people.

Values influence behavior and serve as criteria for evaluating the actions of others.

There is often a direct relationship among the values, norms, and sanctions of a culture.

Cultural values, beliefs, “attitudes”, and priorities change. Many are in a constant state of change, often subtle, sometimes obvious. But, basic overarching values tend to remain relatively stable. Some are: achievement, efficiency, material comfort, nationalism, equality, & the supremacy of science and reason over faith.

Socialization


Socialization is the process by which, through the agents of socialization, individuals learn about and come to believe in their culture.

Agents of Socialization may be other individuals (a parent, peers), or they may be societal institutions (schools, the media).

Socially Controlling Children

Infants are born without culture. They must be transformed by their parents or caregivers, teachers, and others into social and cultural beings. Through socialization, they are acquiring culture.

During this period, the interests of the socializers collide with the biological development of the young child.

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) described this biological development in terms of stages of personality development, as the child slowly internalizes the perspective of society (the superego), which then restricts inborn desires (the id).

This process is unconscious. According to Freud, unconscious motives control much of our behavior.


Slowly, the superego grows larger and triumphs, leaving the id to accept social controls. This acceptance will lead to the development of unconscious defense mechanisms, and, depending upon the resiliency of the child, might lead to maladaptive or deviant behaviors.

Defense Mechanisms are unconscious strategies we use to protect or distance ourselves from a conscious and full awareness of thoughts, feelings, desires, or circumstances that are creating anxiety and discomfort.

Anxiety – an unpleasant emotion that is usually experienced in anticipation of some circumstance; uneasiness, apprehension, or fear directed at a person, place, task, or belief; an acute, intrusive, but unspecific feeling, typically referred to as angst.


Some examples of unconscious defense mechanisms are:

(1) Reaction Formation – a person unconsciously develops attitudes & beliefs that are the opposite of unacceptable repressed desires & influences & serve to conceal them (become a promoter of a severe moral standard to thwart anxiety producing impulses for lustful preoccupations that are believed to be wrong)

(2) Displacement – unconsciously redirecting unpleasant thoughts, feelings or impulses about something or someone to a safer one (kicking the dog when you’re mad at the boss)

(3) Sublimation – the unconscious channeling of unacceptable impulses or drives into more acceptable outlets (aggressive person becomes a professional wrestler)

(4) Intellectualization – unconsciously using cognition to suppress and gain mastery over unpleasant or overwhelming feelings (focus on survival rate for disease to hide from fear)

(5) Repression – unconsciously blocking anxiety producing memories, traumatic events, or unacceptable impulses from the conscious mind (a medic has no recollection of his military service even though he was awarded citations which documented his actions)


As children grow older, their intellectual development provides the capacity to understand rules and roles. This reflects their ability to look at themselves (self-evaluate) in terms of the general expectations of society.

Internalization occurs when the values of the social group become the values of the group member.

From early childhood on, everyone develops a self-image that is reflective of other people’s views. We develop our self-image through the responses of others so that ultimately we can predict those responses and view ourselves accordingly. This process is called the Looking-Glass Self.

As we grow older, we enter new statuses and need to learn (or adjust to) the appropriate roles for them. We have various types of experiences that may lead us to alter our expectations, beliefs, and personality. This is referred to as Lifelong Socialization.

The Bio-Psycho-Social Perspective


We are a unique compilation of biological, psychological, and socio-environmental factors. These factors, together, mold our self-perception and our perception of the world around us.

The Self is a distinct identity that sets us apart from others. It continues to develop & change throughout our lives. It is our conscious, reflective sense of our own identity or “personality.”

Biological factors are such things as our genetics and heredity, the basic genetic heritage that all humans share, instincts, and temperament (basic, innate disposition). Unconscious instinctual drives in the human animal, for example, contribute to our social traits and social behaviors.

Heredity – influences on behavior that are transmitted biologically from parent to child.

Maturation – the unfolding of biologically determined behavior patterns.

Genetic Heritage – is responsible for such functions or attributes as height, weight, blood pressure, athletic ability, memory, “intelligence,” mental retardation, anxiety, inhibitions, schizophrenia, among others.

Psychological factors are best described as our thoughts (cognition) and our feelings. Together, they define how we will behave. And behavior is what others see, what can be evaluated or measured as normal or abnormal, maladaptive or deviant.

Socio-Environmental factors are both macro and micro level influences, from the agents or socialization (family, peers, media & technology, educational systems, work, etc) and overarching cultural norms, values, and beliefs to one-on-one and group interactions.


Additional Key Concepts

Charles Horton Cooley: Looking Glass Self – the self is the product of our social interactions with other people; there are three phases; first, we imagine how we present ourselves to others; second, we decide how others are evaluating us (we are collecting feedback); third, we develop self-perceptions (on both cognitive & feeling levels) based upon the first two phases.


George Herbert Mead: Theory of The Self – the self emerges in three distinct stages:

The Preparatory Stage – children begin by imitating people around them; as they grow older they learn how to use symbols to communicate (gestures, objects, language).Symbols differ greatly from culture to culture, society to society.

The Play Stage – the use of symbols causes children to become more aware of social relationships. During this stage, they use role-playing to “become” other people (an adult, a superhero, a rock star). Role-taking is the process of mentally assuming the perspective of another (similar to empathy in adults). This teaches children tremendous amounts about how individuals, groups, and cultures function, and strongly impacts socialization.

The Game Stage – children move to actual tasks; they begin to grasp their own social positions and those of others around them. They begin to take into account the attitudes, viewpoints, and expectations of society as a whole (to the extent, obviously, that they can understand what they see, think, and feel). This is called the Generalized Other.


Erving Goffman: Presentation of the Self – Impression Management – we learn to slant our presentation of the self in order to create distinctive appearances & satisfy particular audiences.

Rites of Passage – a means of dramatizing & validating changes in a person’s status; specific ceremonies (or events) mark stages of development in the life course.

Anticipatory Socialization – the processes of socialization in which a person “rehearses” for future positions, occupations, and social relationships.

Resocialization – the process of discarding former behavior patterns & accepting new ones as part of a transition in one’s life.

Social Learning Theory – the learning that occurs from observing and imitating others.


An Overview of Socialization

Infants are born without any culture. They must be transformed by their parents, teachers, and others into social and cultural beings. This general process of acquiring culture is referred to as socialization.

During socialization, we learn the language of the culture we are born into as well as the roles we are to play in life. For instance, girls learn how to be daughters, sisters, friends, wives or partners, mothers. They learn about the occupational roles their society allows them.

We also learn and usually adopt our culture’s norms through the socialization process. Norms are the conceptions of appropriate and expected behavior that are held by most members of the society.

Socialization is important in the process of personality formation. While a percentage of personality is the result of our genes, the socialization process can mold the rest in particular directions by encouraging specific beliefs and attitudes as well as selectively providing experiences. This very likely accounts for much of the difference between the common personality types in one society in comparison to another, as well as the typical diagnoses for maladaptive behavior that so many people fit. There is a “sameness” because of the socialization process.

As we age, we enter new statuses and need to learn the appropriate roles for them. We have various types of experiences that may lead us to alter our expectations, beliefs, and personality. This is referred to as lifelong socialization.

Successful socialization can result in uniformity within a society. If all children receive the same socialization, it is likely that they will share the same beliefs and expectations. This fact has been a strong motivation for national governments to standardize education. Deciding what things will be taught and how they are taught is a powerful political tool for controlling people (“social controls”). Those who internalize the norms of society are less likely to break the law or want radical social changes.

In all societies, there are individuals who do not conform to culturally defined standards of normalcy because they were “abnormally” socialized, which is to say that they have not internalized the norms of society. These people are defined by society as deviant and, often, mentally ill.

Large-scale societies, such as the US, are composed of many different ethnic groups and races. As a consequence, socialization in different families often varies in techniques, goals, and expectations. Since these complex societies are not culturally homogenous, they do not have unanimous agreement about what should be the shared norms. Not surprisingly, this national ambiguity usually results in more tolerance for “difference” that does not threaten the status quo, and more tolerance of social deviancy in general. Macro-level values continue to drive norms, however, keeping “deviance tolerance” at a safe minimum.

Culture & the Dominant Ideology

Both functionalist and conflict theorists agree that culture & society are in harmony with each other, but for different reasons.

Functionalists maintain that stability requires a consensus & the support of society’s members; consequently, there are strong central values & common norms. A cultural trait or practice will persist if it performs functions that society seems to need or contributes to overall social stability & consensus.

Conflict theorists agree that a common culture may exist, but it serves to maintain the privileges of certain groups. While protecting their own self-interests, powerful groups may keep others in a subservient position.

Dominant Ideology describes the set of cultural beliefs & practices that help to maintain powerful social, economic, and political interests. A capitalist society such as ours has a dominant ideology that serves the interests of the dominant groups.

According to Dominant Ideology perspective, not only do a society’s powerful groups and institutions control wealth & property; even more important, they control the means of producing beliefs about reality through religion, education, and the media.

Feminist Perspective states that if all of a society’s most important institutions tell women that they should be subservient to men, this Dominant Ideology will help control women & keep them in a subordinate position.


Cultural Variation

Each culture has a unique character. They adapt to meet specific sets of circumstances, such as climate, level of technology, population, and geography. This adaptation shows up in differences in all elements of culture, including norms, sanctions, values, and language.

A subculture is a segment of society that shares a distinctive pattern of mores, folkways, and values that differs from the pattern of the larger culture. Subcultures develop in a number of ways:
• a segment of society faces problems or privileges unique to its position (recovering addicts/alcoholics);
• common age (teenagers, elderly);
• region (Appalachians);
• ethnic heritage (Cuban Americans);
• occupation (firefighters);
• beliefs (deaf activists preserving deaf culture);
• a shared interest, hobby, or experience (Star Trek, Veterans);
• exclusion from conventional society (by choice, Amish; by “deed”, prisoners).

Members of subcultures participate in the dominant culture, while engaging in unique & distinctive forms of behavior. They often develop an argot, or specialized language, that establishes patterns of communication that “outsiders” can’t understand. Unique symbols are also common in subcultural groups.

A counterculture is a subculture that deliberately opposes certain aspects of the larger culture. Young people are more likely to join one because they have the least investment in the existing or dominant culture. Terrorist groups operate as countercultures in many countries.

Additional Key Concepts

Anyone who feels uncertain, out of place, even fearful, when immersed in an unfamiliar culture may be experiencing culture shock.

Ethnocentrism refers to the tendency to assume that one’s culture and way of life constitute the norm, the standard of correct behavior, or are superior to all others. The ethnocentric person sees his or her own group as the center or defining point of culture and views all other cultures as deviations from what is “normal.”

Cultural Relativism states that we must assess another culture from that culture’s unique perspective. It stresses that different social contexts give rise to different norms and values.

Ideal Culture – the ideal values and norms of a people; the goals held out for them

Real Culture – the norms and values that people actually follow


Core Values

The United States, a pluralistic society, is made up of many different groups. They represent different political and social ideologies, religions and racial-ethnic groups, as well as countless thousands of interest groups that center around such divergent activities as collecting Barbie dolls and hunting quail.


But we do share core values (macro-level non-material culture). These values are generally assumed to be “the American way” and are taught to school children as morality and signs of good character. We are all socialized to believe in them through media presentations, political speeches, and in the workplace. Sociologist Robin Williams (no, not him) first identified these values in 1965.

1. Individualism Americans have traditionally prized success that comes from individual effort and initiative. They cherish the ideal that an individual can rise from the bottom of society to its very top. If someone fails to “get ahead,” Americans generally find fault with that individual, rather than with the social system for placing roadblocks in his or her path.

2. Achievement and Success Americans place a high value on personal achievement, especially outdoing others. This value includes getting ahead at work and school, and attaining wealth, power, and prestige.

3. Activity and Work Americans expect people to work hard and to be busily engaged in some activity even when not at work.

4. Efficiency and Practicality Americans award high marks for getting things done efficiently. Even in everyday life, Americans consider it important to do things fast, and they constantly seek ways to increase efficiency.

5. Science and Technology Americans have a passion for applied science, for using science to control nature – to tame rivers and harness wind – and to develop new technology, from motorized scooters to talking computers.

6. Progress Americans expect rapid technological change. They believe that they should constantly build “more and better” gadgets that will help them move toward that vague goal called “progress.”

7. Material Comfort Americans expect a high level of material comfort. This comfort includes not only good nutrition, medical care, and housing, but also late-model cars and recreational playthings – from boats o computer games.

8. Humanitarianism Americans emphasize helpfulness, personal kindness, aid in mass disasters, and organized philanthropy.

9. Freedom This core value pervades U.S. life. It underscored the American Revolution, and Americans pride themselves on their personal freedom.

10. Democracy By this term, Americans refer to majority rule, to the right of everyone to express an opinion, and to representative government.

11. Equality It is impossible to understand Americans without being aware of the central role that the value of equality plays in their lives. Equality of opportunity has significantly influenced U.S. history and continues to mark relations between groups that make up U.S. society.

12. Racism and Group Superiority Although it contradicts freedom, democracy, and equality, Americans value some groups more than others and have done so throughout their history. The slaughter of Native Americans and the enslaving of Africans are the most notorious examples.


In 1975, Sociologist James Henslin updated Williams’ analysis be adding three values.

1. Education Americans are expected to go as far in school as their abilities and finances allow. Over the years, the definition of an “adequate” education has changed, and today a college education is considered an appropriate goal for most Americans. Those who have an opportunity for higher education and do not take it are sometimes viewed as doing something “wrong” – not merely as making a bad choice, but as somehow being involved in an immoral act.

2. Religiosity There is a feeling that “every true American ought to be religious.” This does not mean that everyone is expected to join a church, synagogue, or mosque, but that everyone ought to acknowledge a belief in a Supreme Being and follow some set of matching precepts. This value is so pervasive that Americans stamp “In God We Trust” on their money and declare in their national pledge of allegiance that they are “one nation under God.”

3. Romantic Love Americans feel that the only proper basis for marriage is romantic love. Songs, literature, mass media, and “folk beliefs” all stress this value. They especially love the theme that “love conquers all.”

Value Cluster – values that fit together to form a larger whole

In the value cluster surrounding Achievement and Success, hard work, education, efficiency, material comfort, and individualism are all bound together. (Henslin, 48-52)