Class Notes
Professor Henry Schissler
Chapter Seven

Inequality by Gender

The ascribed characteristic of gender creates privilege for men & discrimination for women. Like differences in race, differences in gender are visible, and they are socially constructed. Women may be a majority in terms of their numbers, but they are treated more like a minority group. For minority women, the intersection of gender & race creates a double jeopardy of discrimination that no other minority group faces.

Gender Roles – expectations regarding the proper behavior, attitudes, and activities of males & females; they are evident not only in our work and behavior but in how we react to others.

Traditional gender-role patterns continue to be influential in socialization of children. Boys must be masculine – active, aggressive, tough, daring, and dominant. Girls must be feminine – soft, emotional, sweet, and submissive. Children’s toys reinforce these patterns of socialization.

Homophobia (fear of or prejudice against gays/lesbians/bisexuals) contributes significantly to rigid gender-roles. Because many still associate gay men with “femininity” and lesbians with “masculinity”, persons who deviate from their traditional gender role may be considered gay. Despite growing acceptance of the gay/lesbian/bisexual community, continuing stigma attached to homosexuality places pressure on all men (whether gay or not) to exhibit only narrow “masculine” behavior and on all females (whether lesbian or not) to exhibit narrow “feminine” behavior.

Socially constructed men’s roles influence how a boy or a man comes to view his role in society. Five typical aspects of the male gender role are –
1. Anti-Feminine Element – show no “sissy stuff,” including any expressions of openness or vulnerability
2. Success Element – prove one’s masculinity at work and sports
3. Aggressive Element – use force in dealing with others
4. Sexual Element – initiate and control all sexual relations
5. Self-Reliant Element – keep cool and unflappable

Functionalist View

Gender differentiation contributes to overall social stability. Traditional gender roles arose out of the need to establish a division of labor (and specialized tasks) between women and men, particularly in a family system. Studies by anthropologist Margaret Mead demonstrate that our traditional gender roles may not be relevant in a different type of society. In fact, Mead showed that traditional roles did not exist when they would be detrimental to the culture’s stability or survival.

Conflict Perspective

The relationship between females & males has been one of unequal power, with men occupying the dominant position. Gender differences are a reflection of the subjugation of one group (women) by another group (men). Women’s subordination is institutionally structured & culturally rationalized, exposing them to conditions of disrespect, dependency, powerlessness, and poverty.

Feminism – refers to both the belief that social equality should exist between the sexes, and the Social Movement aimed at achieving that goal.

Liberal Feminism – women’s inequality is primarily the result of imperfect institutions, which can be corrected by reforms that do not fundamentally alter society itself.

Socialist Feminism – women’s inequality is the result of the combination of capitalistic economic relations and patriarchy; both must be fundamentally transformed before women can achieve equality.

Radical Feminism – equality for women has never been achieved under any political or economic system; it, therefore, underlies all other forms of inequality, including economic inequality.

Multicultural Feminism – focuses on understanding and ending inequality for all women, regardless of race, class, nationality, age, sexual orientation, or other characteristics.

Sexism – the ideology that one sex is superior to the other; the belief that one sex is innately inferior, and that therefore its domination is justified.

Gender Stratification – inequality toward women in a stratified (class) society.

Patriarchy – any set of social relationships in which men dominate women.

Sexual Harassment – behavior that occurs when work benefits are made contingent on sexual favors, or when touching, lewd comments, or the appearance of pornographic material creates a “hostile environment” in the workplace.




Status of Women Worldwide

• Despite advantages in higher education, women still face major barriers when they attempt to advance in the workplace. Women rarely hold more than 1 or 2 percent of top executive positions.
• The feminization of poverty has become a worldwide phenomenon. Single-parent households headed by women are on the rise in many countries.
• Women worldwide are underrepresented politically.
• Women almost always work in occupations with lower status and pay than men. In both developing and developed countries, many women work as unpaid family laborers. While they grow half the world’s food, they rarely own land.
• Despite social norms regarding support & protection, many widows find they have little concrete support from extended family networks.
• In many African & a few Asian nations, traditions mandate the cutting of female genitals. This often leads to serious & immediate complications from infection & eventually to long-term health problems.
• While males outnumber females as refugees, women have unique needs, such as protection against physical & sexual abuse.

Gender Bias in the Workplace

Women are underrepresented in occupations historically defined as “men’s jobs,” which often carry greater financial reward and prestige. Women entering the job market are often subjected to occupational segregation, or confinement to sex-typed “women’s jobs.”

Women accounted for 95% of all secretaries, 10% of all engineers, 98% of all dental assistants, 20% of all dentists, 96% of all child care workers, 93% of all registered nurses, and 29% of all physicians.

Women earn less money than men, about 78 cents for every dollar earned by men.

Second Shift – describes the double burden of work outside the home followed by child care & housework at home.

Double Jeopardy – refers to women who belong to minority groups experiencing discrimination based on both their gender and their race or ethnicity; they typically earn less than white women and are more likely be classified as “working poor.”